'One size does not fit all’: how five tertiary education organisations embed literacy, language and numeracy: case study findings

This report forms part of a project designed to answer the research questions and sub-questions detailed in the Ministry of Education Request for Proposals. The first part of the project was a review of international literature on the embedding of literacy, language and numeracy (LLN). While the review is briefly summarised in this report it will be available as a separate publication (Leach et al., in press).

The focus of this report is the second part of the project – five case studies that investigated the design and delivery of LLN in tertiary organisations in Aotearoa New Zealand.

2.1 Research questions

In its Request for Proposals the Ministry of Education specified the research question and sub-questions as:

How do tertiary education organisations profile, develop and deliver effective literacy, language and numeracy within programmes?

• What profile does LLN provision have within vocational and industry training courses run by tertiary education organisations?
• How is LLN provision represented within the management of TEOs?
• Where does LLN fit within TEOs (e.g. specialist departments)?
• Is there an LLN component in initial tutor training?
• What ongoing support to teach LLN skills do specialist and vocational tutors receive?
• How are LLN tutors attracted and retained?
• Are tutors full-time or part-time, casually or permanently employed?
• What experience and qualifications do tutors within TEOs have to teach LLN skills to adults and to embed that teaching within programmes?
• How are any changes in LLN skills of adult learners measured?
• What is the effect of the new LLN tutor qualifications on the organisation and composition of the LLN tutor workforce within organisations?
• How explicit are LLN skill requirements in course outlines and descriptions of programmes?

This project was designed to answer these research questions so is a descriptive study rather than an evaluative one. While this report presents conclusions drawn from individual cases as well as findings from across the cases we also note that it is a snapshot in time, describing the situation in the organisations at a particular point in their development and delivery of embedded LLN.

2.2 Review of literature

This review focused on the provision of embedded literacy in a variety of post-school contexts. The Skills for Life Development Centre (2006, p. 8) definition of embedded literacy in vocational contexts, which is used in this study, is:

Embedded teaching and learning combines the development of literacy, language, and numeracy with vocational and other skills. The skills acquired provide learners with the confidence, competence and motivation necessary for them to succeed in qualifications, in life and work.

The literature review conducted as part of the project (Leach et al., in press) showed that the amount of literature being published is increasing rapidly as interest grows in adult LLN and as research centres, especially in the United Kingdom and Australia, report on a variety of projects. There is also a growing number of studies in Aotearoa New Zealand, supported by the Ministry of Education, the Tertiary Education Commission and the Department of Labour. A theoretical framework and guidelines for embedding for different sectors have been published (TEC, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2009d). Some recent studies focus on provision for Māori (e.g. May, 2009; McMurchy-Pilkington, 2009; Mlcek et al., 2009; White et al., 2009); some explore ESOL in the workplace (Wright, 2008). The review noted the emergent nature of this international literature and identified four strands in the international literature: vocational LLN, English as an Additional Language (EAL) and biliteracy, LLN practice, and critical literacy/New Literacy Studies (NLS).

Internationally, interest is growing in LLN provision and in findings related to what works for adult students in different contexts. Some studies found benefits from embedding (Casey et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2005; Skills for Life Development Centre, 2006; Vorhaus, 2006), although embedding was understood in different ways. Casey et al. (2006) identified a scale of embedding: (1) no embedding: learners experience vocational training and LLN as separate activities; (2) partly embedded: LLN development and vocational studies are integrated to some extent; (3) mostly embedded: LLN is part of vocational study but activities are not always co-ordinated; and (4) fully embedded or integrated: LLN development is an integral part of the vocational studies. Fully embedded programmes may involve two teachers timetabled to teach together, or one teacher teaching more than one subject area, where the embedding is achieved through separate LLN sessions within an integrated whole. There is no single perfect model of embedding. Rather, there is evidence that multiple, not unitary, approaches to provision work best, that more flexible patterns of participation are needed (Vorhaus, 2006), that a ‘one size fits all’ approach is not the best (Rogers & Kramer, 2008).

Four major factors are associated with successful embedding – a ‘built in not bolted on’ approach (Millar & Falk, 2002; Wickert & McGuirk, 2005): first, a whole-of-organisation involvement and commitment (Ní Chinnéide, 2008; Skills for Life Development Centre, 2006); second, close collaboration between vocational and LLN teachers (Barton & Pitt, 2003; Callan & Ashworth, 2004; Casey et al., 2006); third, identification of learners’ needs in terms of both vocational and LLN provision (Guthrie, 2008); and, finally, planning (King & Bingman, 2004), professional development (Berghella et al., 2006; Casey et al., 2006; Dymock, 2007), and resource development (Berghella et al., 2006).

In addition to these four major factors, studies found that learning needs to be contextualised and authentic for the student (Burt et al., 2003; Nunavut Literacy Council & Northwest Territories Literacy Council, 2007). While the learner, their learning needs and their interests are central, this should not produce an individualised approach, as collaborative learning and group interactions result in improved outcomes. Tailoring learning to the individual (personalisation) rather than having learners work alone (individualisation) works well (Green & Howard, 2007). Good practice is underpinned by adult education principles (Derbyshire et al., 2005) and constructivism (McKenna & Fitzpatrick, 2005). Flexibility in teaching methods (Tusting & Barton, 2007) and active learning (Balatti et al., 2006) are desirable. Initial training (Berghella et al., 2006; Dymock, 2007) and ongoing professional development for teachers are essential (Casey et al., 2006; Wickert & McGuirk, 2005). Organisations need to be adequately resourced, provide quality learning resources and create and maintain an infrastructure that supports embedded LLN (Guenther, 2002). Studies show differences between EAL and literacy learners, such that separate provision is advocated or, at least, teachers who are trained in both literacy and EAL (Wright, 2008). EAL learners bring diverse levels of literacy knowledge and have diverse needs which need to be recognised in provision (Orem, 2005). There is also a need for bilingual tutors and professional development for tutors (Roberts et al., 2004; Shameem et al., 2002).

An important factor in discussions about LLN provision is the international shift in theories evident in the last two decades (Maclachlan & Cloonan, 2003): from a focus on functional approaches to one that espouses a critical, integrated, social practice view, sometimes referred to as New Literacy Studies. This shift is also understood as competing conceptual paradigms (Rogers & Kramer, 2008), an ideological divide (Murray, 2005) or two literacy discourses (Crowther et al., 2003). Further, there are different understandings about the benefits of LLN, for example human capital (Reio et al., 2005) or social capital perspectives (St. Clair, 2008), and about a deficit approach and the use of power in LLN provision (Crowther et al., 2003; Tett & Maclachlan, 2008). These changes make conversations about LLN more complex and miscommunications more likely.

2.3 Methodology

The research design used for the project was case study, “an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single entity, phenomenon or social unit” (Merriam, 1988, p. 16). Justification for researching individual institutions is found in literature on student retention (Braxton & Lien, 2000; McInnis et al., 2000; Zepke et al., 2005), which shows differences in factors influencing students between multiple and single institution studies. While each aspect of the project was planned collaboratively, individual case studies were researched by a researcher who contacted the organisation, liaised with a contact person, visited the site/s, gathered and analysed the data and wrote up the case – with one exception, which is described below. Ethics approval for the project was gained from Massey University Human Ethics Committee (Southern A Application 08/49).

Five cases were researched in organisations deliberately chosen from across the sector: two Private Training Establishments (PTEs), one wānanga, one Industry Training Organisation (ITO) and one Institute of Technology and Polytechnic (ITP). Organisations known by the researchers or the Ministry of Education to be embedding LLN were invited to participate. One PTE approached refused, saying it was not yet doing enough embedded LLN to participate. Data-gathering methods included document analysis of relevant organisational documents, interviews with managers who had responsibility for LLN provision, and focus group interviews with vocational teachers who were embedding LLN in their practice and with literacy specialists. Most interviews lasted about an hour and were conducted face to face; in one case study two interviews were conducted by telephone. Interviews were recorded and transcribed; and transcriptions were returned to participants for checking, modification and approval to be used. A number of participants made changes to the transcripts, often related to changing oral into written language; some participants approved transcripts without changes. One person in one organisation asked that any quotations to be included in the report be sent to them for prior approval. This was done and approval given. One focus group in one case study did not approve the transcript of their interview so data from this were not included in the case.

A framework for data analysis was developed by examining the research questions and the findings from the literature review. This produced four categories of ideas that were sought in the data: governance (e.g. vision, goals, strategic planning and resources), management (e.g. how embedding is managed, programmes developed, quality assured), pedagogy, and professional development. Data analysis included the use of NVivo by three of the researchers, hard copy and onscreen highlighting of selected text and handwritten notes to identify and record evidence of these four categories in the participants’ comments and the organisational documents. Data were read and re-read to identify themes for each category. Each case was written up individually, sent to others in the research team and to the organisation for peer review, revised, then edited and incorporated into this report.

However, research projects seldom go exactly as planned. In this instance we had to address several issues that arose during the project. One researcher withdrew from the project at an early stage and was replaced by another. Unfortunately that second person also withdrew – after some data had been gathered but prior to writing up the case. One of the project co-ordinators then analysed the data that had been gathered, did two further interviews with key informers and wrote up the case study. One set of data was removed when the participants did not sign the release of transcript form.

As with any research, there are limitations with this study. First, it is a snapshot in time, a picture of the development and delivery of LLN in these organisations at the time the data were gathered. Already they have moved on; things have changed; LLN embedding is being done differently. Further, in most cases, the snapshot was taken during the early days of the embedded LLN initiatives. Second, while the five cases were deliberately chosen to reflect different parts of the tertiary sector, they are not representative of the sector. Our findings cannot be generalised to other similar institutions or to the tertiary sector as a whole. Third, participants in each case study do not represent the people involved in that organisation. Findings from each case cannot be generalised to the organisation. There will be other views and practices not evident here. The cases also reflect the views of managers and tutors; they don’t include student views or those of the funding bodies. Fourth, in this kind of study the researcher is not an objective bystander. Each person brings their subjectivity to the research process. Each case and the project findings in some way reflect our interpretations of the data we gathered. The report needs to be read with that in mind. As in all research, the focus of the study was shaped by the specified research questions. Different questions may have elicited different information and findings. Finally, this is a descriptive study and does not contain evaluative information about the success of the organisations in delivering LLN.

2.4 Structure of this report

In the following sections we first present the five case studies. Each case study ends with specific conclusions as is appropriate to our case study design. We present the case studies on the basis of their experience in providing embedded LLN, from the least experienced at the time of writing to the most experienced. We then identify and comment on eight themes that emerged across all five of the cases, linking these findings to the literature. We do this because we believe key findings based on similarities that emerged across such different contexts are especially strong. Finally, we comment briefly on answers to each of the subsidiary research questions we identified in the case study data.