Through Language to Literacy

Results

Tutor Profiles

Eight tutors - two native English-speakers and six bilingual speakers - participated in this project. All bilingual tutors had arrived in NZ as adults and had lived in NZ for varying periods of time; the shortest period was a year and the longest, six to eight years.

Language use data showed some shift in the use of language at home among the participating tutors. While four of the tutors (two of them native English-speaking tutors) spoke their first language at home, four other tutors (all bilinguals) said they used their first language in combination with English. This data warrants further investigation, as it is fairly unusual for a newly immigrant adult population to shift so rapidly in their use of the home language.

Language proficiency data showed that while all the tutors rated their proficiency at the highest Level 5 in all four skill areas (speaking, understanding, reading and writing) in their first language, proficiency in their second languages varied considerably. English was the first language for the two NZ-born tutors but was the second, third or fourth language of the bilingual tutors. The bilingual tutors' proficiency in English varied, with two rating themselves at Level 5 in all four skill areas.

The data on the tutors' educational background and experience showed they were all well-qualified, with at least a certificate in the teaching field, and considerable experience in teaching in different contexts. This showed that tutors were adaptable and practised, and would be able to bring their knowledge - base to benefit those in the community who had been less fortunate.

When asked about the main issues arising from their teaching, the tutors revealed a high degree of enjoyment and motivation in teaching the literacy classes. A majority felt the support they had received was adequate, and particularly so in the area of co-ordinated meetings; quality and quantity of available resources and equipment; knowledge about teaching methods; and the encouragement and motivation they had received from their institutions during their teaching period. Some concern was expressed about the continuity of funding, the transient nature of classes, the inadequate number of hours spent each week in the classroom, and the need for further in-service training.

A majority of tutors expressed their satisfaction at being able to help less- fortunate members of their communities to gain knowledge and literacy skills in the NZ context. They enjoyed watching them make progress in their learning, self-confidence and self - esteem. However, some concern was expressed about student `forgetfulness,' which may be partly due to the nature and duration of the classes. Some tutors felt the curriculum needed further work, with clearer outlines, objectives and outcomes linked to specific topics and task-types. The test procedures, too, were difficult because of student unfamiliarity with them. Regular attendance of students during the whole programme was a concern, which is reflected in the number of students who participated in the project and those who completed all aspects of the research and assessment process.

Student Profiles

Although 118 students were enrolled in the programmes during the course of the 20 weeks, only 62 of them were eligible as participants on the research project. They originated from seven different countries, with the majority being refugees over 30 years of age, who had arrived in NZ when they were over 21 years of age and within the last five years. While nearly two thirds of the participants had been unemployed in their home country, in NZ this was true for over 90% of them. However, the data showed that prospective employment was not the only reason for their demand for English literacy. Other reasons such as functional use of English to fill in forms, watch TV and adapt to NZ society were just as important to them.

Half the research participants had attended primary school prior to arriving in NZ, and most of these had received less than three years of English language instruction in their country of origin. Moreover, more than half the participants had received at least some English instruction in NZ before enrolling in the current classes. There was some discrepancy in student responses to the questions regarding mother tongue and first language, as in six cases these did not match up. Clearly, this distinction is important among new immigrants and refugee groups who have more than three languages in their speech repertoire.

Response to a question on home language use showed over 40% of students preferring to use their mother tongue bilingually with English - a clear sign of language shift within the first few years of immigration. The three variables which seemed to be affecting the rapid shift were gender (men were shifting faster than women were), country of origin, and mother tongue (Somali, Afghani and Cambodian participants were more resistant to shift). The results showed a demand for bilingual tuition on the part of two thirds of the respondents at the beginning of the programme.

Participants were ambivalent about host community attitudes towards their use of the mother tongue in public, with half saying they were comfortable or confident doing so but nearly as many being unsure of their reception if they did.

English language proficiency data followed the expected pattern, with respondents being strongest in listening skills, followed by speaking, reading, then writing. First language proficiency also showed reading ability to be stronger than writing. Overall, participants' first language literacy ability was higher than their English ability, and of significance was the positive influence of first language literacy skills on English literacy. English literacy was also affected by gender (women showed lower mean proficiencies) and length of NZ residence (earlier arrivals within the last five-year span were more competent than more recent arrivals). Different ethnicities displayed varying first language literacy abilities.

The next section looks at the assessment data from the study and evaluates whether literacy gains at emerging literacy level can be measured through the use of self-assessment scales.

Student Perceptions of Literacy Gains

The results of the self-assessment procedures showed that for future use, some changes are needed in the order in which tasks and topics are covered in the curriculum, and in the placing of functional tasks from easier to more difficult on the self-assessment scales. Research participants reported higher abilities in numeracy skills than in reading and writing. There was also some evidence that students were finding it easier to follow reading and writing conventions than they were to use the skills in context, such as in reading information on a simple form or in filling one out.

Group trends in data showed that a majority of students felt they had made gains in literacy in both reading and writing skills, and this perception was found to be a statistically-significant one. It was also apparent that students who came into the programme with perceived higher levels of ability were also likely to complete it with a similarly positive perception of their abilities.

When student perceptions of their gains were compared between those being taught by bilingual tutors and those in classes with English-speaking tutors, it was found that variances between the two groups were non-significant. However, the gains within each group showed that a majority of individuals being taught by English-speaking tutors felt they had a significantly higher literacy ability in the Time 3 reports at the end of the programme than in the Time 1 ones at the beginning.

In comparing the literacy gains made between the 2-hour and 12-hour weekly classes, it was found that variances between the two groups were significant only for reported writing ability in Time 3. They were non-significant between them for reading ability in Time 1 and 3 or in Time 1 reported writing ability. The data showed significant gains made in reading and writing literacy within the 12-hour classes between Time 1 and Time 3.

It is apparent, therefore, that a high standard of teaching, and longer contact hours were conducive to perceived literacy gains among this group of research participants. The results showed that both bilingual and English-speaking tutors have crucial roles to play, depending on the beginning proficiency level of the students in their classes and their desire for bilingual instruction. Perhaps exposure to both types of tutors would increase perceived gains among the students, by allowing access to a variety of effective role models.

The performance test results in the next section enables a comparison to be drawn between perceived and actual literacy gains among the research participants.

Assessed and Reported Literacy Gains

The results of the final tests indicated the significant gains made in literacy over this programme of study. For the total test population, this represented a movement of two levels on the 8-Level table of descriptors developed for the programme, in both reading and writing. The research participants had entered the programme with higher levels of reading ability than writing. They also finished the programme with better reading than writing skills. Those who had entered the programme with higher levels of literacy ability performed correspondingly well on the final assessments.

Analyses were performed between the two groups taught by bilingual and English-speaking tutors and found significant gains made in both groups. Significant differences were found in the variances between the two groups on the final reading assessments, where those being taught by bilingual tutors appeared to have made considerable gains.

Analyses were also performed between groups having 2-hour and 12-hour weekly instruction; the mean differences indicated that 12 hours a week of instruction benefits both reading and writing. Two hours a week of instruction seems to benefit reading more so than writing ability. Overall, group variances were not significantly different however, which illustrates the general benefits of literacy instruction, regardless of the contact hours devoted to it.

When assessed and reported literacy skills were compared, significant differences were found in the initial reading and writing assessments, and in the final reading assessment. By the end of the programme, students were making a more reliable estimate of their writing abilities. The results indicate that further work is needed to fine-tune the self-assessment scales and comparative test performance descriptors to allow greater congruence between the two, and a more realistic grading of skills in an ascending order of difficulty. There was evidence, however, that the mid-point at Level 5 of the descriptors was appropriately placed, and student performance on tasks from Levels 1 - 4 and Levels 5 - 8 were generally falling on either side of this level.

Case Studies

The main objective of this component of the project was to determine the needs of learners in low-level literacy and ESOL courses. It was also to identify the teaching methodologies and course design which best support their progress.

The analysis of the data demonstrated that the needs of the students in the two classes included in this study were very different. This was made abundantly clear in the initial test results. The range of raw marks for Class A was 44 - 171, with the median mark being 107, which was approximately half of the total score. These students had recently arrived under the family reunification criterion. All were literate in their first language, and all had had a reasonable amount of previous education. These characteristics would be expected to enhance the students' capacity to make progress. Their age range was similar to that of Class B.

The range of raw marks for Class B was 7 - 72, with the average student achieving 44.5. The profile of the Somali women in Class B demonstrates the factors which may have influenced their assessment performance. All were pre-literate and none had had any education nor, therefore, any experience of classroom learning. This profile is consistent with that of a considerable proportion of refugees, and has had a negative impact on their achievement.

The results of this study confirmed that there was a range of levels and needs within the sample of students selected for literacy and ESOL courses. The fact that each group has different starting points at the commencement of the course must be reflected in both the course design and its delivery. Prior knowledge of the students' first language literacy and prior schooling should inform class placement and expectations regarding student progress and achievement. The profiles of the two different classes reflects the differing students' learning needs.

The data indicated that the expectations of the students in terms of the outcomes of the course also differed. While all of the interviewees stressed the importance of learning literacy and English to improve their participation and independence, Class A stressed that their aim was finding employment, whilst the Somali women in Class B hoped to achieve competence in everyday tasks. Both students and tutors expected that the course would have practical outcomes. As one student commented, her ultimate goal was to have "a happy and successful life" in NZ.

Tutors felt that it was vital that the course design was responsive to student needs. If course materials and activities are based on real-life situations, this enhances the students' motivation to learn, as they can see the relevance and usefulness of the language.

Both tutors identified a delay in the confirmation of the course curriculum and the content of the first assessment. This was viewed as problematic by Tutor A, who also felt that the assessment became the focus of the course, which was confusing for students and demanded a certain amount of guesswork for the tutor. At the outset of the course, Tutor B based her curriculum content and the introduction of literacy skills on the students' needs. The fact that this delay was of less significance to her perhaps reflects the lower level needs of her students and the foundation skills which they had yet to develop.

Both tutors felt that classrooms should have a supportive and respectful atmosphere where mutual trust has been established. They identified the essential components of course delivery as continual repetition, and the introduction of new language in a carefully controlled and appropriately-paced manner. They agreed that realia and pictures were the most effective teaching resources for low-level students.

In terms of the characteristics of successful learners, the tutors ranked literacy in the students' first language as the crucial factor. Youth was a definite advantage, as the elderly have difficulty in retaining new learning. Having previous education and prior familiarity with classrooms and learning were seen as being very important. Having confidence, motivation and study skills were the other indicators of a successful student.

The students were unanimous in their support for the timing, duration and location of the courses. Both classes expressed appreciation of their tutors and all students were satisfied with the progress achieved in the course. All students identified the need for further study, and getting employment was the ultimate aim of most. All students had a positive view of NZ and NZers.

The Asian students all professed a sense of it being their duty to undertake English study, as the government was supporting them. One of them also felt reluctant to comment on his tutor's teaching methods, as this was perceived as disrespectful.

There was some frustration regarding admission to TOPs courses. This was perceived as being a very slow process for those with employment aspirations, and there were particular problems related to eligibility and level of English proficiency. Two students suggested that the courses could be linked with employment or practical activities such as sewing and cooking.

Discussion and Recommendations

The main purpose of the study was to gauge if literacy gains were being made on a 20-week literacy programme for pre-literate and low-level literacy adult ESOL students in Auckland. The students were being taught at three different sites - managed by the West Auckland and South Auckland ESOL Home Tutor Schemes. The students were receiving instruction from bilingual and native English-speaking tutors, with a majority attending 12-hour weekly classes and a minority, 2-hour weekly classes. Although there were 118 students enrolled in the programme over the course of the semester, 62 students completed most of the tasks which were set as part of this project and, for the purpose of data analysis, these 62 participants were selected.

Four main methods were used to study the students, the programme, and to determine literacy gains. These included personal information profiles of the students, case-study procedures, self-assessment procedures which were conducted at the beginning, the mid-point and the end of the programme, and literacy tests which were conducted at the beginning and end of the programme. The self-assessment tasks and the literacy test tasks were parallel to each other in order to obtain a realistic comparison and to validate the self-assessment scales, which could then be used instead of actual tests in future programmes. In addition, six case studies were undertaken to enable a qualitative look at the programme.

At the beginning of the programme, tutors and students were asked to fill in personal profile forms, which provided an insight into some of the factors affecting teaching, learning, and literacy gains among pre-literate and low-level literacy learners who come from disadvantaged and often traumatic backgrounds. Eight tutors participated in the project - two native English-speakers and six bilingual tutors. All the bilingual tutors had arrived in NZ as adults and English was their second, third or fourth language. Despite this, four of the bilingual tutors preferred to speak English bilingually with their own language at home - an area that needs further investigation as language shift within the first few years of immigration is fairly unusual amongst adult immigrants.

The tutors were well-qualified and experienced, and all were highly motivated to teach those in their community who needed literacy help. They were very happy with the level of support they had received from the ESOL Home Tutor Schemes and staff they were working with, but expressed concern about continuity of funding, the transient nature of classes, irregular student attendance, the inadequate number of hours spent each week in the classroom, and the need for further in-service training. Some tutors were also worried about student attention-span and forgetfulness - which may partly be due not only to the nature and duration of classes but also to the background of the students. Finally, tutors wanted to see a further revision of the curriculum, with clearer outlines, objectives and outcomes linked to specific topics and task-types. They also wanted easier assessment procedures because of student difficulty with these. A majority of students had never previously experienced a test-taking session. Collaborative work on the tests and the process of getting self-reports of literacy were perceived as real problems, needing to be worked into future test procedures with learners of similar backgrounds at this level.

The student personal profiles also served to provide information about the students' current perceptions of their English language proficiency, and their hopes and expectations of the programme at its inception. All the students were first-generation immigrants and refugees; most had arrived in NZ when they were over 21 years of age and had lived here for less than five years. They had varied first languages and mother tongues, and wide-ranging first language literacy levels. They originated from seven different countries.

Over 90% of them had been unemployed in NZ, and prospective employment as well as the need to use English in a range of survival situations such as filling out forms, understanding TV, and adapting to NZ society had prompted them to attend the literacy classes. Only half the participants had received a primary school education.

As with the bilingual tutors, the students too, showed evidence of language shift, as over 40 percent of them stated that they preferred to use English bilingually with their first language/mother tongue at home. Gender, country of origin and mother tongue seemed to be the three variables most affecting language shift. Somali, Afghani and Cambodian participants were most likely to maintain their home languages.

Bilingual tuition seemed to be in demand for over two thirds of the participants at the start of the course - a question that would have been good to follow up during final course evaluations. Participants were divided in their opinion of how the host community perceived them if they spoke their home language in public. Half were comfortable with it, but the others felt uncertain. Both English and first language proficiencies showed the passive skills (listening and reading) being stronger than the active skills (speaking and writing). First language literacy was stronger than English literacy, and had a significant positive effect on the acquisition of English literacy. English literacy was also affected by gender, with women displaying weaker abilities. Finally, the newest arrivals had less competence than those who had arrived earlier in NZ, showing that length of residence had a significant effect on English literacy in this group.

While it is acknowledged that `literacy' means a great deal more than just reading, writing and numeracy skills, for the purposes of assessment, these were the primary skills assessed. Other aspects of literacy, particularly those influenced by the affective domain and background variables, were covered in the personal profiles and case studies. These included a gain in confidence in social interaction and progress towards the students' aims of preparing for further study, employment and providing more effective support of their families. They increased their independence by developing coping skills for everyday life such as using public transport and the telephone. The students also benefited from the advice and mentoring provided by their tutors, and their cultural orientation was strengthened in terms of their increased familiarization with the NZ lifestyle and contemporary issues.

Although all three self-assessments were useful in this study for perceived literacy gains, it was apparent that having two - the initial and the final would have yielded similar information. However, having a self-assessment at mid-point allowed the follow-through of trends in perceived gains by the students. The use of the scale in the initial self-assessment showed that students tended to feel they were more able to perform numeracy tasks and meet de-contextualised language demands than to produce language for real functions such as the filling out of forms. This had, however, changed by the final self-assessments, with student reports of progress matching their results to a far greater extent.

Students felt they had made significant gains in both reading and writing. An independent-samples T-test showed that variances in perception of literacy gains between those taught by English-speaking and bilingual tutors were non-significant, although gains made by individuals within each group using a Wilcoxon matched-pairs test showed that a majority of students taught by English-speaking tutors felt they had significantly improved in their literacy ability by the end of the programme.

Variances in reports between the two groups receiving 2-hour and 12-hour weekly instruction were significant only for the final writing self-assessment, with students in the 12-hour group feeling they had made significant gains in literacy in both reading and writing.

When the students were actually tested, there was clear evidence of significant gains having been made in literacy during the research period for the wider research sample as well as for both groups: those taught by bilingual and English-speaking tutors. For the total sample, this represented an increase of two levels on the 8-point descriptor scale developed for this project. Reading skills were consistently better than writing in all tests for this research sample.

Analyses performed between the groups receiving the 2- and 12-hour weekly instruction indicated the benefits of having more contact time for literacy education. However group variances between the two were not significant, which would indicate not only the general importance of but also the gains to be made from any literacy instruction, regardless of the number of contact hours.

When assessed and reported literacy skills were compared, the closest match was between the final writing test and self-assessments. Twenty weeks of instruction, and awareness of the content of literacy education had meant that students were able to assess their writing ability with a greater degree of accuracy. There was evidence that the test and self-report descriptors were generally working quite well by the end of the programme, and the accuracy of the mid-point on the scales was clearly confirmed.

Recommendations derived from this report

1. That student personal profiles at the beginning of the programme be retained for planning purposes, so that student needs are appropriately and adequately catered for, given the background, previous education, gender, length of NZ residence and first language literacy.

2. That the sequence of tasks in this curriculum be re-visited in the light of student initial self assessment, so that skills they perceive to be easier are consolidated before more difficult ones are introduced. This will reduce anxiety among students.

3. That bilingual and native-English speaking tutors be retained, and further training be offered to address their current needs. That tutors be encouraged to have a greater role in curriculum and assessment design and development, lesson delivery, and in identifying ways in which to enhance student motivation and retention.

4. That classes have access to bilingual, English-speaking and EAL tutors so that they have realistic models to work with, given the plurilingual, multi-cultural nature of the NZ environment. All have their strengths in teaching various aspects of the curriculum, and it is important that this resource be utilised for all students. Two thirds of the students indicated they would like bilingual teaching at the start of the programme, and this is clearly a preferred option at the beginning stages when student language needs require special scaffolding, and especially when they face insecurities with language learning, given their traumatic backgrounds. Older women in particular - who made up the bulk of this sample - are insecure about beginning literacy and language learning skills.

5. That students are given practice in whichever form is chosen to measure their achievement (self assessment and /or testing). These students need to be given practice in all aspects of self-assessment and testing methods, including timing, so that test anxiety is reduced and results reflect their real knowledge.

6. That funding be obtained for regular 12-hour weekly classes in preference to 2-hour ones, but having a smaller number of hours as an option for students who are unable to attend for more hours per week. Some literacy instruction is preferable to none at all, as students made gains in the 2-hour classes, although not as significantly as those in the 12-hour classes. All students in these 2-hour classes however, had some primary school education - it is presumed the gains would not have been as great in these classes if they had had no previous schooling.

General recommendations

1. That first language and literacy skills be encouraged and supported, as there is a significant relationship with English literacy skills.

2. That students and tutors be made aware that home use of the mother tongue is crucial for cognitive development and that a shift to bilingual language use with English may threaten acquisition of both languages, particularly among younger children and in the NZ-born generation.

3. That low-level literacy and ESOL programmes:

Acknowledge that the diversity of learners requires a range of educational responses
Use a curriculum responsive to student needs
Use classroom materials and activities based on relevant, useful and real-life situations
Formulate curriculum and assessment tasks stemming from the profiles of students at the beginning of the course
4. That the student be given a progress and achievement report at the end of the programme which clearly signals the areas in which the student is now competent. This will comprise the final test results along with the test descriptors. It will give the next teacher a clear indication of student ability.

Recommendations for further research

1. That further work be done looking specifically at the variables which affect language literacy and English literacy gains among refugee pre-literate and low-literacy ESOL students, so that tutors are made aware of the factors which might intrude on or further motivate their students and encourage greater gains.

2. Collaborative learning is appropriate to the culture of these learners and therefore methods of collaborative test-taking could be explored.

3. The use and shift of home languages be documented and the variables which seem to contribute to this be explored.