Mā te huruhuru ka rere te manu: how can language and literacy be optimised for Māori learner success?

1. Introduction

“Manawatia e koe te kura pae a Mahina”
Treasure the lost plume of Mahina

1.1: Mā te huruhuru, ka rere te manu

With feathers a bird can fly

Wintec was contracted by the Ministry of Education to research how language and literacy can be optimised for Māori learner success, with specific focus on introductory, foundation and certificate-level programmes. This was conducted within a timeframe of one year. A secondary aim of the project was to build the research capacity of the Wintec research team.

Meaning of the whakataukī

The above whakataukī was selected as the main metaphor hei whakaruruhau (to shield, embrace and encompass²) the following chapters of the research. The interconnectedness of feathers and their layering effect help to draw an analogy of unity, while still acknowledging the unique function of each feather. Within this paradigm we capture glimpses of the critical thinking and embodied knowledge of those being researched and those doing the research. We also capture other pictures from this whakataukī.

Combined, the feathers behave as:

• a korowai (cloak) to protect the bird (learner) from the harshness of the cold, wind and rain – the elements represent difficulties faced in literacy and language and in tertiary institutions
• an object of aerodynamic manoeuvrability – a sign of adaptability enabling both the learner and the tutor to progress towards success
• an identifier of the type of bird – symbolic of the uniqueness of each student and tutor.
  

This is reminiscent of common iwi kinship, where distinctiveness is nurtured and then weaved into the whānau, hapū and iwi societies.

Each chapter is enveloped with a selection of whakatauākī/tongi – sayings and prophecies as symbols of mana and integrity of the contributed knowledge from each of the four the focus groups. To that end, each chapter will outline the meaning of the whakatauākī/tongi it is using.

1.2: Participants and research approach

Data collection

Data was collected through recordings, notes and ā-waha, ā-whakarongo, ā-wairua apparatuses.³ Part-way through the research, one of the members chose to exit the research due to external influencing circumstances. However, the apparatuses chosen aided the remaining research member in capturing the students’ voices and gave opportunity to seek clarification to answers provided, where necessary.

The information gathered explored teaching and learning factors, including:

• expectations and attitudes of teachers
• teacher education
• experience and subject knowledge
• theoretical and pedagogical approaches
• assessment practices
• learning environments
• programme resources and demands.
  

Private Training Establishment tutors

In this research, PTE tutors are defined as:

“tutors who teach introductory, foundation or certificate-level programmes to a variety of Māori adult learners at a private training establishment. These tutors are involved in teaching course content and also providing literacy and numeracy support”.

The tutors came from two PTEs and were interviewed to provide perspectives on how they view language and literacy optimisation for Māori learner success and also to examine some of the successes and gaps they faced when delivering their courses.

Current students

Current Māori learners are defined as:

“students who are enrolled in and have commenced study in a Wintec Introduction, Foundation or Certificate programme”.

The interviewed students from this group were enrolled in a 16-week Introduction to Construction Level 2 programme offered through the collaborative efforts of a Waikato-Maniapoto iwi rūnanga and Wintec. Their unique contribution to this research stems from the whakapapa relationship that all students shared with the iwi rūnanga concerned. Another unique aspect is that these students were being trained in carpentry maintenance in response to the capacity-building needs within their community. The information gathered looked at finding direct learner gain, learner and environmental factors including goals and aspirations, their experiences of education and learning to date; and the effect of expectations (gender, age, life) on these learning experiences, and what barriers/enablers exist for current learning.

Tutors of current Māori learners

The tutors of the current students in the Introduction to Construction Level 2 programme were also interviewed to provide perspectives on how they view language and literacy optimisation for Māori learner success. Both tutors were chosen by the iwi rūnanga to develop and deliver the programme because of their connectedness to the community.

The information gathered explored teaching and learning factors including: expectations and attitudes of teachers, teacher education, experience and subject knowledge, theoretical and pedagogical approaches, assessment practices, learning environments, programme resources and any other demands.

Potential learners

Potential Māori learners have been defined as:

• students who may or may not be enrolled in programmes and who have not yet commenced study at Wintec
• students who may not have completed any tertiary study.
  

The students interviewed attended a one-week Wānanga Pūkenga Ako course – designed for students wanting to develop their study and writing skills before entering tertiary study. These students are pre-enrolled and/or considering pursuing study at Wintec.

The information gathered provided a historical background about student perceptions of language and literacy and why they want to engage in tertiary education. It also looked at finding direct learner gain, and learner and environmental factors including learner goals and aspirations, their experiences of education and learning to date; and the effect of expectations (gender, age, life) on these learning experiences, and what barriers/enablers exist for current learning.

Missed interviews

Opportunities were sought to interview the potential student Māori tutors within Wintec who were engaged in tertiary study skill, and literacy and language, development. This was the one section of the research that was unable to be captured. Despite efforts made by the research team and the tutors who were willing to participate, a number of circumstances became problematic to ensuring ethical and appropriate attainment of data suitable for use in this research.

Advisory committee

An advisory group was established to ensure the quality of the research project. This group met three times during the project and members were available by email or phone consultation throughout the project. The relationship of the advisory committee with the research team was critical in helping to set the tone of how the research was to be done. Innately, practices of whakawhanaungatanga occurred from the outset allowing the group to attain cultural ownership, trust and collaborative praxis.

The advisory group provided:

• review on various stages of the research in terms of addressing the research question
• advice on research methodology to ensure that it was appropriate for Māori
• advice on up-to-date research work in the area of literacy, and knowledge of recent publications
• feedback on research analysis and progress
• guidance in the writing of the research to ensure that it meets the needs of the end users, that is, Māori students and tutors, and Wintec.
  

Members of the advisory group included:

• Surya Pandey, Research Director, Waikato Institute of Technology
• Cath Rau, Director and Consultant, Kia Ata Mai Trust, which develops and promotes Māori-medium literacy and professional development
• Messina Hatfield, Auckland University of Technology, Learning Development Centre.
  

Professor Stephen May, from the Waikato University School of Education, played a key role as the external research consultant throughout the research project, and provided the research team with invaluable critique and feedback during the drafting of the report. Anne Lee and David Earle, senior advisors from the Ministry of Education, also provided critical feedback about the progress of the research and offered clarity from the perspective of the Ministry.

Research team, roles and responsibilities

The research team was originally set up with six Māori academic teaching staff engaged in delivering core subject content, tertiary studies skills support, and adult literacy; all have a vested interest in Māori literacy and language in relation to their roles at Wintec. From this, two members were assigned a focus group to interview. At the early stages, one of the academic staff members withdrew from the research project because of work pressures.

All members of the research team contributed to how the research would be approached, the development of questions being asked, what tools would be used to capture the student and tutor voices, the interview process, how this information would be analysed, and finally, what would become of this information and how it would be used. The team also considered it responsible to take advantage of the meetings had with the advisory committee, Professor Stephen May, Anne Lee and David Earle as this contributed to their research building capability.

1.3: Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) – a history of the land

The hill upon which Wintec is currently sited is part of the traditional lands of the local iwi Ngāti Wairere, and it has considerable significance to that hapū.⁴

The region

Wintec is located in a region with a high-density Māori population. In 2001, twenty percent of the population of the Waikato Regional Council area was Māori.

Wintec provides qualifications in a variety of applied industry-focused areas including targeted kaupapa Māori programmes that reflect the aspirations and learning needs of the Māori community. The Institute has been proactive in developing programmes that encourage wider participation of Māori within the tertiary learning arena. These include courses in te reo me ngā tikanga total immersion, and kaupapa Māori bridging courses to assist Māori to meet entry requirements into programmes across the institution.

A number of national and institutional research projects have highlighted lower participation and lower success in the attainment of tertiary qualifications by Māori (Coutts, 1995; Davies, 1993; Manthei, 1994; Te Karere Mātauranga Māori Research & Development Consultancy, 1996; Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998; Te Puni Kōkiri, 2000). Recent internal studies confirm concerns about lower Māori student success (Endres-Fairnie, 2004; Gibson-van Marrewijk, 2005).

The non-completion of programmes by students has implications on personal, institutional and community levels. In too many cases the aspirations of Māori students go unfulfilled.

The institution

Wintec is one the largest institutes of its type in New Zealand. It has more than 15,000 full-time and part-time students and offers more than 150 programmes on its three campuses in Hamilton city and satellite campuses throughout the Waikato and Auckland regions (Wintec, 2004). It aims to be the regional leader in applied education and training and its mission statement is to “Build a stronger community through education, research and career development”.

The Wintec Profile 2006-2008 recognises Tainui as tangata whenua and having special significance in the organisation’s activities. Wintec has identified ‘meet Māori and Pasifika educational outcomes and aspirations’ as one of seven strategic objectives for the organisation. Wintec is committed to incorporating Treaty of Waitangi-based practices into all aspects of governance, planning, policies and operational processes.

Wintec offers qualifications at certificate, diploma, degree, graduate and postgraduate levels across a wide range of subjects in the main areas of trades and technology, health and human services, sports and exercise, the creative industries, business and management, science and primary industries, the service industries and Māori and Pasifika development. There are at least 21 certificate programmes, of which 14 are foundation programmes ranging from levels 1 to 4.

Wintec provides strong student learning support as well as a range of pastoral, disability and health support. There is also a Māori and Pasifika Student Supplementary Grant (SSG) available from the Tertiary Education Commission to increase student retention, and a range of initiatives was developed to ensure this.

1.4: What are literacy and language?

The researchers used the following process to form a definition of what language and literacy are to them.

Smith (1999) suggests that understanding is the first step towards empowerment – this, she says, comes in the form of “naming it” and “owning it”. Understanding the English language and the colonisers’ practices helps to facilitate transformation. The ability to know who we are as Māori, and our ways of seeing and doing, enables us to negotiate new futures on our own terms. Although Smith states this in the context of research, it has relevance to how the researchers formed their definition of language and literacy.

Being Māori

The research team agreed that traditional Māori language and literacies came in the forms of tā moko, waiata, waiata mōteatea, ngā tūmomo pūoro, ngā mahi toi, ngā mahi ā-rehia, reo ō-kawa, reo ō-paki, reo ō-karakia, reo ō-tohunga, reo ō-ao, and reo tuauriuri. These identified Māori forms underpinned the co-construction of the definition (to follow) of what language and literacy came to mean to the research team.

Literacy is more than functional and a holistic approach is required. In other words: “Literacy is a means with which to express, understand, provide for, and make sense of oneself and the whole richness of oneself in its widest cultural, spiritual, intellectual and physical sense” (Penetito cited in Rawiri, 2005, p. 5).

Te kāwai ora (Māori Adult Literacy Working Party, 2001) identifies that ‘being Māori’ was directed by a number of complex Māori realities, world views and methodologies. These “bodies of knowledge” (p. 8) are necessary guides to start with when looking at the survivability of Māori and developing literacy programmes for Māori, which is more than just reading and writing, though they are included. In exploring the question “What is Māori literacy?”, creating outcomes of increased “cultural and political knowledge” (p. 35) and knowing where you come from and who you are were seen as one response.

Durie (2003) suggests that when looking at educational advancement, a good starting point is “To enable Māori to be citizens of the world, to live as Māori and to enjoy a high standard of living” (p. 228).

According to “Literacy Aotearoa, literacy is listening, speaking, reading, writing and critical thinking, interwoven with the knowledge of social and cultural practices. Literacy empowers people to contribute to and improve society” (Māori Adult Literacy Working Party, 2001, p. 39).

Figure 1: Māori conceptual model of cohesive interpersonal relationships⁵

The conceptual model in Figure 1 highlights the holistic wealth of knowledge and world view that has always been present for Māori, no matter the circumstance. It represents both tangible and intangible values that are important and recognisable to Māori (T. R. Williams, 1999), which are not always fully appreciated and have sometimes been dismissed by dominant research theories often to the detriment of the people being researched. These concepts also informed our definition of literacy and language.

Māori are not a homogeneous group, as they come from a variety of backgrounds and experiences which contribute to the richness and range of learning experiences. Kāore mātou e whakahē i te tangata mai te hapa kotahi, engari ka titiro whānui i tōna ao me ōna pūkenga maha hei karapoti i te tuakiri o te tangata. (We look at the holistic person as opposed to seeing his/her individual mistakes.⁶)

The researchers’ definition

The preceding literature informed the researchers’ own definition of language and literacy kia kotahi ai ngā whakaaro (a co-construction of understanding).

The researchers understand literacy and language to mean:

“the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create and communicate the different levels and layers of written and spoken information. Literacy and language take on the form of layering written and spoken communication, which can be reading, writing, speaking, listening, problem solving and creative thinking. Mastery of literacy and language skills is a lifelong journey of building the capacity to shape and empower Māori and other worlds”.

1.5: Background literature

In 1997 Richard Jefferies conducted a project, commissioned by Te Puni Kōkiri, investigating barriers and strategies to Māori participation in tertiary education. The purpose of the report was to “analyse the range, nature and extent of barriers to Māori participation and achievement in tertiary education” and to “develop strategies and solutions” (Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998, p. 89) for Māori students and potential Māori students. The findings indicated some consistent “inter-related factors that acted as barriers for Māori in tertiary education” (ibid., p. 90).

Wintec carried out an internal study in direct response to concerns by Māori staff about retention of Māori students. This study, by Gibson-van Marrewijk (2005), commenced in 2002 and involved Māori staff within the departments of Nursing, Community and Continuing Education, Māori Studies and Tertiary Studies Support, to investigate what retention strategies would support Māori students’ study and programme success.

A key issue was that although the programmes at Wintec often start at level 4, many Māori students have language and literacy skills at level 1 or 2. This was supported by anecdotal evidence from Wintec tutors and tertiary study support staff. Jefferies also found that failure to achieve at primary and secondary school was the prime barrier restricting Māori participation and achievement at tertiary level. The importance of language and literacy to learning and achievement led to this research and investigation into how they can be optimised.

Gibson-van Marrewijk (2005) reported that when students began studying, they felt “thrown in the deep end” (p. 13) and had limited tertiary readiness. For some of the students, completing a foundation/certificate level course helped them to cope better with assignments and study workloads for diploma and degree courses. Further, it was found that it may be difficult to retain students who have limited literacy or education preparation.

The implications of this research point to a need to develop programmes that introduce students to subjects and assessment requirements that will in turn prepare them for studying at certificate, diploma and degree levels. Having students who are more academically prepared may lessen the impact of the amount of work students are expected to complete when they begin a higher-level diploma or degree programme. Allowing students into diploma or degree programmes without adequate preparation is setting them up to struggle or fail, particularly when pre-entry tasks indicate that the student may have difficulties with study.

Jefferies’ (1997) project is important to this research because it was the first substantial piece of first-hand feedback from Māori providers and students. The study carried out by Gibson-van Marrewijk (2005) was significant because of its direct relevance to Māori student participation and achievement at Wintec.

1.6: Kaupapa Māori research methodology

Domination through language

Language is described by Freire as the “real stuff” of society and comprises both an environment of domination and area of possibility – “all languages are valid, systematic, rule-governed systems, and that the inferiority/superiority distinction is a social phenomenon” (Freire & Macedo, 1987, p. 5). Antonio Gramsci, in Henry Giroux’s “Education under Siege” (1987, p. 8) suggested that language was “instrumental in both silencing the voices of the oppressed and in legitimating oppressive social relations” because it could be both “hegemonic and counter hegemonic”.⁷ T. R. Williams (1999) continues this idea, suggesting that the dominant culture establishes itself through hegemony, colonisation and assimilation, where they (the dominant culture) are seen as natural and of greater value.

This unnatural use of language does little to benefit the people being researched and is more likely to contribute to their feelings of oppression. It may also convey a mental picture of dominance to the participants. Knowing this justifies the decision made by the research team not to consider a number of dominant research methodologies because not only were the approaches culturally inappropriate, but the language used has little relevance and standing with the people. However, this does not disqualify the production of academic writing for publication; rather, it respectfully chooses to use research methods that are natural to the participants.

Co-construction through kaupapa Māori research

A kaupapa Māori research framework was used in gathering knowledge and perspectives from the Māori focus groups involved in this research. Kaupapa Māori research has been defined as research by Māori, for Māori, with Māori – in other words, research that maintains a Māori conceptual design as well as methodological and interpretative control (Jahnke, 1999).

Here, kaupapa Māori research focuses on seeking positive outcomes for those being researched, such as increased knowledge, improved services and, obviously, optimisation of language and literacy. It was therefore appropriate that the research team co-construct with the people towards the final dissemination of the research findings. Indeed, Smith (1999) suggests that ‘reporting back’ to the people and ‘sharing knowledge’ assume a “principle of reciprocity and feedback” (p. 16). This is in contrast to some research approaches that remain aloof, or seek monetary gain from their work without consideration for the people being researched.

Kawa/Ethics

The reflexive nature of Māori cultural protocols, behaviours and values undergirds the research and its return to the people, which is both ethical and respectful. The assurance that principles such as whakawhanaungatanga, kanohi ki te kanohi, karakia, and titiro whakarongo kōrero are given space and time presupposes the validity and legitimacy of Māori tikanga and epistemological understandings – recognised apparatuses within Māori research. This is hugely important as a Māori world view and holistic approach are manifest at the whānau, hapū and iwi levels of development (Bevan-Brown, 1998).

Kaupapa Māori research methodology also infers that those conducting the research will be accountable to the people being researched – in this case, current and potential Māori learners and tutors. Bevan-Brown (1998) notes that this shift of power from the researcher to the people aids in the correct transference of knowledge and appropriate practices of narrative capture.

The reciprocity of knowledge and power was highly influential in the decision about what approach would be taken by the research team because it seeks to lift and whakamana the people who participate. Māori have long recognised (Cram, 2001) that a victim-blaming approach does little to recognise the strengths and values of the whānau, hapū and iwi populace.

In keeping with the philosophy behind KMR, a qualitative approach through focus group interviews – kanohi ki te kanohi – consistent with cultural protocol (Mead, 1996), ethical standards and appreciated by learners, tutors and the research team was used. Within this environment, there was a sense of ‘truly meeting’ – where the listening, looking, seeing were indicators of manaaki, aroha, mana, kawa, wairua and tapu.

There was also a sense of being heard, being seen and being respected from the people as well as the research team – hei ketuketu i ngā mahi mei kore ka puta mai he whakakitenga.⁸

1.7: Thematic approach

A thematic approach to data analysis emerged through discussions and co-constructions among the research team with progressive critiquing by internal and external advisory members.

Process to determine themes

A cohesive interpersonal relationship was developed between the advisory committee and the research team while looking at the questions, data capture and data analysis.

                                                           

Table 1: Early theme indicators during discussion with the advisory committee

Whanaungatanga	Working/learning together - student/teacher, community/institute Student getting/student giving; tutor getting/tutor giving
Tuakana/Teina	Symbiotic relationships developed between students, and between students and tutors –    reciprocal learning, not one-sided
Terminology	How can we better train our tutors to interpret the terms of education for better    comprehension? Are students within Wintec/community groups showing signs of    not understanding:       educational terms       course literature and terms       English       Māori?
Pedagogical practice	Simulating appropriate teaching and learning methods – physically, mentally, culturally Gaps present for low socio-economic learners Gaps present for te reo Māori students Gaps present for tutors ill-equipped for culturation teaching (e.g. pressing into the pedagogical practices that work for/with Māori - tuakana/teina, kanohi ki te kanohi, mahitahi, visual, kinesthetic) Teaching similarities Teaching deficiencies Goal-setting for students, tutor, class, whānau
Narrative	Commitment to looking at the stories: ‘co-construction’ - yours, ‘theirs’, yours

The researchers continually constructed and reconstructed themes before, during and after data collection. This was informed by the prior knowledge, values and experiences individual researchers had about literacy and language experiences of adult Māori learners. Themes were also developed through kanohi ki te kanohi discussions that sought to place within a Māori framework what the participants were saying in relation to the readings.

The data analysis adopted a case study approach, in which the narratives revealed a rich source of detailed experiences that were synthesised into the following themes: background profile, whakawhanaungatanga, pedagogical practices, holistic approaches, habitus and aspirations.

1.8: Main themes

The research was broken into themes revealing layers of literacy and language with each layer integrated and, at the same time, having its own autonomy.

Background profile

The adult Māori students were not seen as a homogeneous group; they came from a variety of backgrounds and experiences. This background contributed to the richness of data and revealed a range of learning experiences. The tutors themselves used their own experiences of literacy and language difficulties as a learning tool to manaaki those students, giving opportunity in the relationship to reflect, initiate and maintain a student-centred programme to optimise students’ background as a fundamental pool of knowledge, to set up a learning environment which assisted both the metaphysical and cognitive development of the student, with success measured in either formative or summative assessments.

Whakawhanaungatanga

Another common thread was whakawhanaungatanga. For example, those in the PTE tutors focus group integrated whakawhanaunga within their structure to help ease new students into their learning classes, to maintain the mana and dignity of the learner and his/her environment without stigma and social isolation (Auerbach, 1995). Smith (1997) suggests that “whānau is distinguished as both a structure and as a process; essentially,…meaningful transformation of Māori crises is dependent on strong whānau structures and processes” (p. 446).

Whakawhanaungatanga was also seen as integral to unlocking a multitude of avenues when looking for ways to optimise the success of Māori students (see Chapter 2). One avenue of whanaungatanga was traditional kinship knowledge and was seen as extremely important for a sense of identity, with a reciprocated relationship between student and tutors within literacy and language forming a bond of collegiality, intergrating self-respect and self-determination.

Pedagogical practice

The integration of Māori pedagogy, such as aroha, ngākau māhaki, tuakana/teina and kanohi kitea, was used to facilitate teaching and learning in literacy with current students (see Chapter2).

The notion of tuakana and teina is incorporated as part of the pedagogical framework, the analogy being where the elder child of the whānau has a responsibility to help the younger child – a role model. This principle is reinterpreted in other ways, for example, faster/more experienced learners having a cultural obligation to help the slower learners. The use of the group activity not only facilitates these culturally preferred learning styles, it also provided an appropriate framework in which cooperative and collective attitudes and values can be practised.

Preparation for tertiary studies is essential for adult learners in mainstream organisations, that is, a holistic approach that includes pedagogical practices.

“Māori have been the victims of cultural subversion through education and proletarianism, through curriculum manipulation, and are totally dominated by Pākehā systems and politics. Through the pedagogical process of listening, looking, repeating instructions, recitation, incantation, practical involvement and reinforcement, the student is able to become a part of the amorangi, the tohunga, becoming an intermediary between the past and the present. All Māori knowledge originates from the past. It may be deposited in an individual(s) but eventually it is disseminated to the group for the benefit of all. The aims were emancipatory in intent, in order to empower.”⁹

Barriers

Highlighted throughout the interviews were barriers such as whakamā, whakaparahako tangata, and noho takitahi. Diverse examples of hegemony, assimilation and disempowerment were also expressed.

T. R. Williams (1999) argues that Māoridom must take over its own autonomous measures to redress the unequal power relations and the continuing crisis for Māori in education. Again he suggests that these barriers have imposed, and are responsible for, the institutionalisation of Māori, where historical imperatives of colonialism and assimilation have long denied Māori the sovereign right to define a future for themselves.

For this research, these historical alienating learning experiences became defining moments in students’ learning and a minefield for tutors to sustain an environment of trust and openness. Interestingly, for some students, their historical alienating learning experiences gave impetus to their decision to engage in mainstream education as a means of reclaiming their mana, ihi, and wehi. This is critical to whether or not the student will continue further with their education.

Holistic approach

Teaching styles of ako, ohu/apu and the collective ownership of knowledge were holistic approaches identified in some of the focus groups (see Chapter 3). The combination of positive attitudes, setting goals, of student and tutor expectations, sharing knowledge and the underpinning Māori epistemology validated the teaching styles. This is reiterated by Smith (1997), who suggests that maintaining relationships, values and beliefs are important holistic approaches to learning and self-identity.

The research members recognised that, although it wasn’t verbalised, pedagogical strategies were heavily influenced by Māori cultural dynamics.

Whānau concept of knowledge: collective ownership of knowledge, obligations to share

“In Kura Kaupapa Māori, knowledge is regarded as belonging to the whole group or whānau. In this sense, knowledge is not an individual or private property. Knowledge belongs to the whole whānau and individuals are merely regarded as the repositories of knowledge for the ultimate benefit of the total group. Individuals have a cultural obligation to share their knowledge in ways that support the welfare and mana of the group …” (Smith, 1997, p. 445).

Trust became a major component in the development of the relationship(s) between the tutor and the students and at times with family and community.

What needs to be mentioned, however, is that the typical modern Māori whānau has evolved, with new dynamics such as solo parents, teen parents, and even students feeling disconnected with who they are, and what direction they wish to go in. The close-knit whānau hub is often a luxury for some students. When added to the historical academic failure, this is enough to disrupt effective student engagement in study.

Habitus

T. R. Williams (1999) writes that habitus is the way a culture is embodied within an individual. It is one’s personal culture. The family socialises the individual within the context of being ‘kith and kin’. Habitus immerses the individual in linguistic and social competencies; it internalises and entrenches qualities pertaining to ultimate values, customs, codes of knowledge, master patterns of language, style, manners and savoir-faire. May (2004) suggests that habitus is important in order to investigate any inequalities in power between “dominant and subordinate groups” (p. 15). He cites Bourdieu as arguing that inequality of power not only devalues and marginalises the habitus of ethnic minority individuals and groups, but also forces them (the ethnic minority individuals and groups) to misrecognise themselves through a process of negative internalisation. For example, minority individuals may often put down their own culture using the oppressor’s language.

Student and tutor narratives of past literacy and language encounters help to inform how or why these experiences may contribute to their engagement of literacy and language.

A combination of inherent skills and hereditary backgrounds has a great influence on the first foundation of learning. This pool of knowledge needs to be recognised in the tertiary sector as literacy and language of te ao Māori.

Goals and aspirations

The learners’ positive experiences of literacy and language strengthens their personal aspirations. This also drives tutors to ensure programme curriculum and teaching approaches are based on student needs, vocational skills and Māori values.

What has become very apparent in the research of literacy and language are questions about the future of adult Māori education within the tertiary sector including the relationships with communities. It raises the possibility of institutions aligning the Māori Tertiary Education Framework with their overall strategic and implementation planning.

Māori as cultural wealth creators

The Māori Tertiary Education Framework has stated quite clearly that “quality tertiary education will help Māori live as Māori, and reach their education and employment potential” (p. 26). This has a holistic impact on Māori whānau, hapū and iwi ambitions to create their own pathways for cultural, economic and social well-being and wealth. According to the framework, these aspirations are linked to Māori learner success in tertiary institutions.

Footnotes

2. This protectionist philosophy in relation to the data and its narrators is consistent with Māori epistemology, as will be shown.
   
3. Aural, visual, spiritual Māori praxis.
4. Wiremu Puke, Ethnographic Researcher, Ngā Mana Toopu O Kirikiriroa.
5. This figure developed by John Rangihau.
   
6. This is not a direct translation because it cannot capture the nuances specific to te reo Māori.
7. Hegemony is a direct or subtle process whereby less privileged classes come to take as natural or common sense ideas and practices that are actually against their own best interests (Williams, T. R., 1999). “The culture of the less privileged class becomes devalued and rejected and that rejection becomes accepted as legitimate” (p. 16).
8. To unearth and delve into the research in the hope of providing the real essence of need.
9. Williams, T. R. Māori language, knowledge and education in the politics and research of the Pākehā. (1999).