On the Edge of Adulthood: Young people's school and out-of-school experiences at 16

7. Opportunities to learn

Teachers’ reports of the learning environment in their class provide indications of the types of opportunities to learn they are likely to provide. For example, if they value interactions between students in which ideas are shared and compared, they are more likely to say they design curriculum materials and facilitate group work that allows this. We found that maths and science teachers painted a somewhat different picture of the learning environment they provided compared with others; and that there are also some striking differences between student descriptions of practices in their most enjoyed compared with their least enjoyed subject classes. These differences do not seem to be subject-related, since students’ most enjoyed subjects are spread right across the curriculum, but rather about the way learning happens in the class. These differences raise some interesting questions about how to engage senior secondary students in learning.

The overall picture of teaching practices given in this chapter also gives some useful information in relation to how ready secondary teachers might be to teach the key competencies now threaded through the revised New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007).

The chapter begins by reporting on students’ most enjoyed and least enjoyed subject classes now they are in the senior secondary school. Following that we describe and discuss the responses of the teachers of the students’ most enjoyed and least enjoyed classes, and English. These teacher responses are reported for three factors that identify potential learning opportunities for students to: work interactively (involved and active); learn from feedback given in a supportive environment (feedback and support); and reflect on their learning (reflective learning practices); and one factor that is about more traditional approaches (students working alone).

Students responded to a larger range of items about their learning environment, including some similar but not usually directly matching items, and how they responded to it. Their answers formed eight factors, five of which are described and discussed in this chapter, and three which are covered in the following chapter since they are more focused on individual responses.

Finally we describe some differences between teacher and student perspectives. Caution is needed here in comparing teacher and student perspectives, because each teacher described their practice with a whole class, of which the matching student was only one member, and while items asked of the students captured the essence of the teacher items, they were not identical.

Students’ most enjoyed and least enjoyed subjects

The first table in this chapter compares the students’ most enjoyed subjects in Years 11 or 12 with responses when the students were in Years 9 or 10. There is a much wider range of choices available at Year 11, and especially at Year 12, when only English is likely to remain compulsory in many schools. To show patterns more clearly, subjects from the same curriculum learning area have been grouped. For example, “science” includes biology, chemistry, physics, human biology, science, and horticulture. “Vocational” subjects include some very different subjects with links to likely employment opportunities (e.g., electronics, automotive, hospitality/catering, tourism) and more general transition courses.

Notes:

* Vocational and applied courses tend to be offered only in the senior secondary school.

** Computing-related courses were counted as technology in Years 9/10.

*** Where English was nominated as the most enjoyed subject, the student gave a second-most-enjoyed subject. These two
choices have both been counted in the table, so the percentages add to more than 100.

It is interesting that learning areas where subjects are likely to have a strong practical component continued to top the list of most enjoyed subjects, as they did in Years 9 and 10. A preference for the arts in general is now translated into the separate subjects of visual arts (8 percent) and drama (6 percent). Science and mathematics both continued as most enjoyed subjects for some students, and chemistry also appeared (6 percent).

It is clear that most enjoyed subjects were widely distributed across the curriculum. This supports the view that the nature of the subject does not constrain the more interactive, purposeful, and connected learning associated with the practice of most enjoyed subjects that is discernible in teacher responses, but more strongly evident in student responses.

In the next table, subjects (grouped into learning areas) that students reported as their least enjoyed in Years 11 or 12 are compared with subjects students reported as their least enjoyed in Years 9 or 10. Again, it is clear that there is a wide range of subjects that are least enjoyed, but unlike those that are most enjoyed, there is a predominance of one curriculum area, mathematics and sciences (62 percent in total at Years 11 or 12). Between Years 9 or 10 and Years 11 or 12, there is a large increase in those who nominated mathematics. The second-largest increase is in English. We see that, as for most enjoyed subjects, the relative proportion of students who did not like a subject in many other learning areas is relatively unchanged from Years 9 and 10.

Notes:

* Vocational and applied courses tend to be offered only in the senior secondary school.

** Computing-related courses were counted as technology in Years 9/10.

*** Where English was nominated as the least enjoyed subject, the student gave a second-least-enjoyed subject. These two
choices have both been counted in the table, so the percentages add to more than 100.

How teachers describe the learning environment in their class

We asked teachers a set of items related to the kind of learning opportunities in their class. In these responses, we identified four factors. For some items in the feedback and support factor, and one item in the students working alone factor, the difference between students’ most enjoyed and least enjoyed classes is marked.

One item did not fit any of the four factors. Students were least likely to “mainly learn facts” in English classes (5 percent); with similar levels for most enjoyed (26 percent) and least enjoyed (31 percent) classes.

Students involved and active

The next table shows the eight items that formed a factor related to the extent to which students actively contribute to the overall learning environment of their class. The pattern revealed is one where some more interactive types of learning opportunities, linked to aspects of life beyond school, are not particularly common in any type of class. They are, however, comparatively less likely to be offered in students’ least enjoyed classes. Teachers of most enjoyed classes were much more likely to also report a lot of fun occurring in these classes, and students interacting with people outside school as part of their school work.

Note: 

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

Mathematics and science teachers were less likely than teachers of other subjects to identify any of the following as features of their class, even when their subject was nominated as a most enjoyed:

• We have a lot of fun.
• Students do a lot of group activities and discussions.
• Students have the opportunity to act on issues that concern them.
• Students are encouraged to assess others’ work and give them feedback.
• Students are encouraged to lead group projects/class activities.
• Students interact with people outside school as part of their school work.
  

The patterns described here are particularly interesting in light of the intention to introduce key competencies into the very heart of the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2007). Aspects of “participating and contributing”, “thinking”, and “relating to others” are evident when students connect learning to their lives and learn together. Aspects of “managing self” are evident in classes where students take responsibility for learning decisions and actions (Hipkins, 2006). We might expect to see an increased incidence in these types of learning opportunities as teachers get to grips with the intent of the key competencies but the data here suggest teachers need support as they are challenged to try new types of learning strategies and activities.

Feedback and support

The patterns described above for students involved and active provide a focus on the teacher’s role in supporting student engagement and motivation. Teachers clearly have a substantial role to play in providing for types of learning that more fully involve students and that give them more power over their own learning decisions. For the items described in the factor students involved and active this can be a somewhat different role and use of their expertise than that which prevailed in the past. What is the situation with respect to the sorts of teacher activities and decision making more likely to be associated with traditional views of teaching?

The next table shows the items that form the factor feedback and support. The more traditional teacher actions grouped here are much more commonly reported than those for students involved and active, and so there are fewer differences between teachers of students’ most enjoyed, least enjoyed, and English teachers’ actions. Teachers of most enjoyed classes were somewhat more likely to say they used different approaches for different students, and they and English teachers were somewhat ahead of those teaching least enjoyed subjects in the formative assessment practice of indicating “next learning steps”. These trends may be because of the high proportion of mathematics and science teachers in the least enjoyed subject group, since they were less likely to provide feedback on next steps than teachers of other subjects.

Note:

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

Reflective learning

Developing an awareness of one’s personal strengths and challenges as a learner is integral to the key competency “managing self” and highlights the metacognitive components of that competency (Hipkins, 2006). The four items that make up the factor reflective learning are related to opportunities to develop such awareness. Slightly over half the teachers reported that they provided such opportunities in their class. Teachers of students’ most enjoyed classes were somewhat more likely to say they provided these opportunities, though only the largest differences are statistically significant.

Note: 

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

Teachers of mathematics and science classes were less likely to be including opportunities for their students to reflect on their learning, to give input into the context and direction of learning activities, or to have the opportunity to set their own learning goals.

Secondary teachers, particularly in mathematics and science, face challenges here. If these “managing self” metacognitive practices are to become more widespread, and the aim of supporting students to become lifelong learners is to be achieved, teachers may need models of how to go about encouraging greater student reflection and input into their learning goals. However, if they do not value this as an outcome of learning, no amount of modelling is likely to make a difference. Wider conversations about the purposes for learning in different curriculum areas will also be needed.

Students working alone

Practical activities were a marked feature of the students’ most enjoyed classes; and in these classes they tended to do somewhat less note-taking and fewer written activities.

Notes: 

(r) = reverse scored in measure

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold

Practical activities were least likely to be reported for mathematics and science classes (33 percent cf. 70 percent for other subjects). Students in these subjects were more likely to be doing a lot of written activities by themselves (64 percent cf. 49 percent for other subjects), and taking a lot of notes (45 percent cf. 31 percent). They were also more likely to be mainly learning facts (34 percent cf. 24 percent).

How students see their opportunities to learn

We asked the students to tell us about aspects of their learning in the three classes, using the same set of 58 items for each class. These items were drawn from research on effective schools and on opportunities to learn related to the development of key competencies, some of which we had used in other NZCER projects.

Nine factors were identifiable among these 58 items; two of these (being positive about the class and about the teacher) were so highly correlated that we combined them into one, positive learning environment. This factor contained the largest number of items, 19. The seven other factors remaining we termed relevant learning opportunities, self and peer formative assessment, a comparative learning environment, a disrupted learning environment, disengaged in learning environment, attitude to work, and absorbed in learning. The last three factors had more items about individual student responses than the others, so we have included a description and discussion of them in the next chapter, which focuses on student approaches to learning. In this chapter, we describe and discuss the first five factors named above.

Positive learning environment

We started with two separate factors, one focused on the student’s relationship with the teacher, and one on the teaching process. These were strongly correlated (0.8 < r < 0.9), which means that, while they do measure slightly different aspects of the class situation for the student (at least in theory), only one could be used in a linear model at a time. The strength of the correlations is indicative of the extent to which, at age 16, students’ attitudes to their teacher and class are not separated. Not surprisingly, students tend to like a class in which they have an effective teacher who provides engaging and relevant learning opportunities, and who responds positively to their learning needs. Here the differences between students’ most enjoyed and least enjoyed classes are wide: positive practices were seen in most enjoyed classes at around double the rate they were seen in least enjoyed classes; and English classes were in between.

Note: 

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

In their least enjoyed classes, students were far less likely to feel they were treated fairly, or that the teacher was interested in them as a person or interested in their learning. This pattern is congruent with the greater difficulty that teachers of individual students’ least enjoyed classes had in providing information about those students’ approaches to learning in their class. The next chapter suggests there is a different quality of teacher–student interpersonal interactions when students are more involved and active in the class. Students and teachers are more likely to get to know each other better when there is greater interaction, and genuine two-way interaction, between them. It is not surprising then, that only a third of the students liked the teacher of their least enjoyed class. There are implications here for the development of the key competency “relating to others”.

Students thought they were much less likely to be actively involved in relevant learning in least enjoyed subjects, or that they could try out new ideas and ways of working; e.g., using examples relevant to their experience was likely to happen in nearly three-quarters of most enjoyed subjects compared to just one-quarter of least enjoyed subjects.

In mathematics and science classes, the students were also less likely to think that teachers were interested in their ideas, knew what interested them, or understood how they felt about things. They were also less likely to say that the teacher used examples that were relevant to their experience—or that they discussed different ways of looking at things (though they were just as likely to say that they could safely express differing views).

Relevant learning opportunities

The factor relevant learning opportunities includes some items with similarities to the teacher factor students involved and active. Just as teachers of most enjoyed subjects were somewhat more likely to say they provided some more interactive and relevant learning opportunities, so students said most enjoyed subjects (classes) provided more connection with the world outside school.

Note:

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

In mathematics or science classes, students were less likely to say they had relevant learning opportunities: fewer hands-on experiences, projects about real things or issues, choice of topic, and learning outside the classroom; and they were less likely to see connections with things outside school in these classes.

The issue of choosing NCEA assessments is more fully discussed in Chapter 9. What is of interest here is how few students say they have this chance in any subject, whether most enjoyed or not. Early research on the impact of NCEA on classroom practice found that teachers rated involving students in making assessment decisions lower than any of the other pedagogical practices listed in the survey they were given (Hipkins, Conner, & Neill, 2006; Hipkins & Neill, 2006). Teachers in these two Shifting Balances projects saw it as their responsibility to exercise assessment decisions on behalf of their students. The key competencies’ challenge here is to help teachers see that students need practice in making such decisions for themselves, even in-high stakes settings, if they are to become lifelong learners.

Self-assessment and awareness of progress

The next two factors derived from student views of their classes contrast aspects of learning experiences that give students pointers as to how well they are doing. Developing self-awareness of learning strengths and needs is seen as important for supporting and enhancing “lifelong learning” dispositions. Again, this is an aspect of the key competencies in the draft curriculum, particularly “managing self”.

The first of these two factors, comparative learning environment, arguably does not contribute to developing ability to manage one’s own learning. When students rely on the teacher to tell them how well they are doing, they are not learning to judge for themselves. Furthermore, simply being compared with other students is unlikely to give useful formative feedback that could lead the student to see where they need to go next. Encouragingly, then, relatively few students said teachers compared students with each other. This was no more likely to happen in least enjoyed than in most enjoyed classes; and did not happen more often in mathematics or science classes. Publicly rating students against one another does not seem to be a hallmark of New Zealand secondary schools.

Note:

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold face.

Advocacy for the use of assessment methods that promote lifelong learning emphasises the importance of self and peer assessment (see, for example, Aikenhead, 1997). These opportunities to learn were most likely to happen in most enjoyed subjects. However, even here, time for reflection on learning and encouragement to self-assess was not universal.

Note:

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

Students who gave mathematics or science classes as their most enjoyed classes were less likely than those who gave other subject classes as their most enjoyed to say they assessed each others’ work and gave feedback.

Students’ views of class behaviours

How students come to see themselves as learners can be influenced by what is happening around them in the class. In challenging situations a collective sense that “we are the kids who …” can develop. In the disrupted learning environment factor, we sense how students and their teacher can contribute to continuing challenges for learning. Such environments were relatively infrequent in most enjoyed classes; but could occur in between a third and half of least enjoyed classes.

Note:

The largest percentages in each line are shown in bold.

Differing teacher and student perspectives

To what extent do teacher and student views agree (or not)? We checked this by cross-tabulating teacher and student responses for similar items in the three types of subjects. This is a broad-brush approach: we are looking at overall levels rather than comparing individual student views matched with the individual teacher of that particular class. In all we checked 28 potential matches for English and then did the same again for most enjoyed and least enjoyed subject. While some matches were not as close as others, it is interesting that so few meaningful differences were found. Teacher and student views were rather similar overall, particularly for English classes. Below we report the few differences in views between teachers and students.

Students saw more opportunities for practical activities and interaction with each other than did teachers in their most enjoyed classes, but teachers thought there was more opportunity for interaction with people outside school. That more teachers than students thought they had to work hard to control most enjoyed classes is interesting, particularly as it is the reverse of the pattern for both English and least enjoyed subject. It may be that the more interactive learning experiences these teachers tend to offer do create a sense that they have to work extra hard to keep learning on track.

In least enjoyed classes, teachers saw more opportunity for practical activities and interaction than did their students. They also thought they gave more useful feedback, which suggests that teachers’ perceptions of what feedback is useful for student learning do not always match their students’, and that such mismatches contribute to students not enjoying learning as well as they might.

Aspects of interactions when working in groups were more likely to be seen by students as happening in both most enjoyed and least enjoyed classes, perhaps because they are the ones doing the interacting. Conversely, interacting with people outside school was more likely to be seen as happening by teachers in both most enjoyed and least enjoyed classes. In this case the difference might lie in the frequency of these events—one field trip in a year would allow the teacher to say this was part of their class, whereas students might wish to see this happening more often before they would agree it was a feature of the class.

Implications

Taken as a whole, the responses outlined in this chapter provide evidence that students appreciate the kinds of learning activities that are potentially supportive of strengthening their key competencies, and that their feelings about different classes—and the teachers of those classes—are grounded in at least tacit discrimination between the types of learning opportunities their classes offer. These learning activities that strengthen key competencies can be offered in any subject, though it seemed as if they were less likely to occur in mathematics and science classes.

While students were positive about the support they got in their most enjoyed classes, such as getting useful feedback, having examples that were relevant to their experience, they were slightly less likely to perceive even in these classes the opportunity to see things afresh, or to discuss different interpretations, and even less likely to be given responsibility that would build skills of managing their own learning. These opportunities were even less likely to be offered in their least enjoyed classes. Thus we gain from student perspectives particularly a picture of the challenges for teachers and schools of moving to practices that make learning more enjoyable, while developing the key competencies. We also see how variable practice can be within schools, so that students are experiencing quite different learning opportunities as they move between teachers.

One of the aims of lifelong learning, with strong links to the key competency “managing self”, concerns the strengthening of students’ autonomy as learners. If teachers are also seen as learners in the context of rapid curriculum change, then they too need to be helped to reflect on the relationship between what they do in their classroom and the strengthening of their own and their students’ autonomy and intrinsic motivation as learners. It could be that a shared teacher–students dialogue that made opportunities to learn in the class an explicit focus of discussion would help achieve this ambitious aim. It seems to us that schools would find this dialogue to be a very productive way to develop how they are to include key competencies in the learning opportunities they offer students. It is vital that work on how to include the key competencies in learning precedes work on how to assess them, since we do not yet know what progression in the key competencies looks like, and thus we risk distorting the intention of the revised New Zealand Curriculum.